Nat Rev Drug Discov 2007, 6: https://www.selleckchem.com/products/pexidartinib-plx3397.html 821–833.CrossRefPubMed 9. Oh SH, Lee OH, Schroeder CP, Oh YW, Ke S, Cha HJ, Park RW, Onn A, Herbst RS, Li C, Lee HY: Antimetastatic activity of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 in lung cancer is mediated by insulin-like growth factor-independent urokinase-type plasminogen activator inhibition. Mol Cancer Ther 2006, 5: 2685–2695.CrossRefPubMed 10. Hofmann F, Garcia-Echeverria C: Blocking the insulin-like growth factor-I receptor as a strategy for targeting cancer. Drug Discov Today 2005, 10: 1041–1047.CrossRefPubMed 11. Tao Y, Pinzi V, Bourhis J, Deutsch E: Mechanisms of disease: signaling of the insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor pathway–therapeutic

perspectives in cancer. Nat Clin Pract Oncol 2007, 4: 591–602.CrossRefPubMed 12. Chang YS, Wang L, Liu D, Mao L, Hong WK, Khuri FR, Lee HY: Correlation between insulin-like growth factor-binding

protein-3 promoter methylation and prognosis of patients with stage I non-small cell lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2002, 8: 3669–3675.PubMed 13. Chang YS, Kong G, Sun S, Liu D, El-Naggar AK, Khuri FR, Hong WK, Lee HY: Clinical significance of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 expression in stage I non-small cell lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2002, 8: 3796–3802.PubMed 14. Lukanova A, Toniolo P, Akhmedkhanov A, Biessy C, Haley NJ, Shore RE, P005091 datasheet Riboli E, Rinaldi S, Kaaks R: A prospective CAL 101 study of insulin-like growth factor-I, IGF-binding proteins-1, -2 and -3 and lung cancer risk in women. Int J Cancer 2001, 92: 888–892.CrossRefPubMed 15. London SJ, Yuan JM, Travlos GS, Gao YT, Wilson RE, Ross RK, Yu MC: Insulin-like growth factor I, IGF-binding protein 3, and lung cancer risk in a prospective study of men in China. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002, 94: 749–754.PubMed 16. Spitz MR, Barnett MJ, Goodman

GE, Thornquist MD, Wu X, Pollak M: Serum insulin-like growth factor (IGF) and IGF-binding protein levels and risk of lung cancer: a case-control study nested in the beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002, 11: 1413–1418.PubMed L-NAME HCl 17. Wakai K, Ito Y, Suzuki K, Tamakoshi A, Seki N, Ando M, Ozasa K, Watanabe Y, Kondo T, Nishino Y, Ohno Y: Serum insulin-like growth factors, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3, and risk of lung cancer death: a case-control study nested in the Japan Collaborative Cohort (JACC) Study. Jpn J Cancer Res 2002, 93: 1279–1286.PubMed 18. Ahn J, Weinstein SJ, Snyder K, Pollak MN, Virtamo J, Albanes D: No association between serum insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-binding protein-3, and lung cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006, 15: 2010–2012.CrossRefPubMed 19. Morris JK, George LM, Wu T, Wald NJ: Insulin-like growth factors and cancer: no role in screening. Evidence from the BUPA study and meta-analysis of prospective epidemiological studies. Br J Cancer 2006, 95: 112–117.CrossRefPubMed 20.

The insoluble Selleckchem MI-503 PHB/protein complexes were spun down, washed to remove

out non-specific proteins, and then subjected to SDS-PAGE followed by immunoblot analysis. As shown in Figure 5, all four VRT752271 molecular weight phasin fusions, as well as the PhaR fusion, exhibited some PHB binding. This suggests that their native forms may possess the proposed function of covering the surface of PHB granules in vivo. PhaP4 and PhaR showed the highest affinities to PHB, as they bound it tightly at lower concentrations, whereas the other three had lower affinities. As mentioned above, these four PhaP proteins contain the Phasin_2 motif (http://​pfam.​sanger.​ac.​uk/​family/​PF09361), but only PhaP4 possesses the C-terminal region containing an amino acid sequence stretch very rich in alanine, in which 13 out of 34 residues are alanine (Figure 2). The alanine-rich sequence in the PhaP proteins of R. eutropha[28] was proposed to be important for exerting phasin function. This may also be the case with PhaP4 of B. japonicum. Figure 5 PHB binding of His 6 -tag PhaP phasins and His 6 -tag PhaR in vitro

. (A) Immunoblots to detect proteins contained in PHB/protein complexes. The amounts of target protein in the crude extracts were compared to controls, and then fixed to contain the same concentration of each of the His6-tag fusions of four PhaP phasins and PhaR. Target proteins were mixed with serially diluted suspensions of PHB, as a fine powder, in test tubes STAT inhibitor and incubated to ifenprodil allow formation of PHB/protein complexes. The PHB/protein complexes were spun down, washed to remove non-specific proteins, and then subjected to 18% SDS-PAGE followed by the immunoblot analysis as described in the Methods. Total crude extract in a tube (lane 1) and proteins contained in the PHB/protein complexes

formed without (lane 6) and with 1.500% (w/v) (lane 2), 0.375% (lane 3), 0.094% (lane 4), and 0.023% (lane 5) PHB are loaded. One set of representative data, from three independent experiments with similar results, is shown. (B) Summary of PHB binding assay. Signal intensities on the immunoblots were quantified using ImageJ software [29] and defined as the parameters representing the amounts of the His6-tag fusion proteins on the blots. The amounts of His6-tag fusions contained in the PHB/protein complexes, formed without (lane 6 in panel A) and with 1.500% (w/v) (lane 2), 0.375% (lane 3), 0.094% (lane 4), and 0.023% (lane 5) PHB, are expressed as percentages of total amounts of respective fusions (lane 1). Values are means of three independent results ± SD, and those followed by the same letters are not significantly different at the 95% confidence level. Pötter and colleagues proposed the following mechanism for PHB granule development in R. eutropha[16]. When PHB is not produced, PhaR exerts its repressor function by binding DNA and repressing transcription of phaP1, which encodes the major phasin.

During following passages from 12 to 14 without lincomycin, mycoplasmas did not recover. These results showed that

we successfully eliminated mycoplasmas also from the low virulent Kuroki strain. The elimination length of Kuroki strain was longer than that of Ikeda strain probably because numbers and/or antibiotics-susceptibility of the contaminated mycoplasmas were different. For further elimination of mycoplasmas from other strains of O. tsutsugamushi, we should first evaluate a maximum concentration Cytoskeletal Signaling inhibitor of lincomycin that does not influence O. tsutsugamushi-growth, and then apply it for decontamination because maximum effects against mycoplasmas are necessary to eliminate them for a short time and to avoid producing lincomycin-resistant mycoplasmas [13–15] during repeating passages. Our additional assay showed that lincomycin at 25 μg/ml did not affect the growth (the virulent strain), GDC-0068 supplier whereas 50 μg/ml slightly decreased

(did not inhibit) the growth in the IF assay (Table 3). Many previous reports about antibiotics-susceptibilities of isolated mycoplasmas showed that MICs of lyncomycin against M. hominis, M. fermentas and A. laidlawii, which are the major contaminants, were less than 6 μg/ml buy Evofosfamide (0.025 to 6 μg/ml) [5, 16–18]. In actual, a previous report showed that lincomycin at 50 μg/ml successfully eliminated the other major contaminants of mycoplasmas, M. hyorhinis and M. hominis from cell cultures [19]. However, a previous report showed that some isolates of M. hyorhinis were highly resistant to lyncomycin (MICs > 100 μg/ml) [14] and a few Docetaxel mw reports showed that other species of mycoplasmas but not major species of contaminants were highly resistant to lyncomycin [13, 15]. Considering these facts, lincomycin at 50 μg/ml can possibly eliminate the contaminants from many of other contaminated strains of O. tsutsugamushi, although it might not be effective for all the

cases. Table 3 The growth of O. tsutsugamushi at the various concentrations of lincomycin   Concentrations of lincomycin in the culture medium   12.5 μg/ml 25 μg/ml 50 μg/ml 100 μg/ml O. tsutsugamsuhi-growtha) +++ +++ ++ – a) A virulent Ikeda strain was cultivated using L-929 cell in the culture medium containing lyncomycin at the indicated concentrations. The growth was observed by the immunofluorescent staining. Conclusions Our results showed an alternative method to eliminate mycoplasmas from the mycoplasma-contaminated strains of O. tsutsugamushi in place of in vivo passage through mice. Especially this new method works for the decontamination not only from the high virulent strain also from the low virulent strain of O. tsutsugamushi, which is difficult to propagate in mice. For further elimination, lincomycin at the limit concentration, which does not inhibit the growth of O. tsutsugamushi, can possibly eliminate most mycoplasmas from contaminated O. tsutsugamushi strains.

Succeeding bio-informatic studies identified a putative σ70-like -10 and -35 box (Figure 3a) (TATAAT respectively TTAAAA) and two imperfect putative NtcA binding sites (TGAN8CAC and GTAN12TAC). By running the complete intergenic region in BLAST at Cyanobase two conserved regions were also discovered. Both can be found in the intergenic regions of several genes in Nostoc PCC 7120 and selleck chemicals Anabaena variabilis ATCC 29413 (data now shown). Their function is unclear but one of them shows similarity

to the consensus PF 2341066 sequence WATCAANNNNTTR from the previously described IHF binding sites [26]. The second and third TSPs were identified inside the gene alr1422, 4 bp and 14 bp downstream of the putative translation start site. A new putative translation start site within the same frame was found 115 bp downstream from the previously suggested start site. By analysing the sequence of the

promoter region a -10 box (TATTTT and TATCAT), a -35 box (TTAAAC and TACCGA) and two putative NtcA binding sites (GTAN8AAC/GTN10AC) 147/157 bp and 62/72 bp upstream of the two TSPs were also identified. Figure 2 Northern blot analysis of hupW. Northern blot analysis of the relative amount of hupW transcripts of Nostoc PCC BAY 73-4506 in vitro 7120 and Nostoc punctiforme under different growth conditions, using a probe against hupW in Nostoc punctiforme. The positions of rRNAs are indicated, as seen on gel. The equal loading of the RNA were analyzed by determine the relative amount of rnpB transcripts. Figure 3 Illustrations of the hupW operons. The hupW operon and surrounding genes in Nostoc PCC 7120 and Nostoc punctiforme. A. The transcription start point (TSP) and promoter region of hupW in Nostoc PCC 7120 together with the result from the reverse transcription FAD (RT) reaction and subsequent PCRs. The positions of primers used in the experiments are shown (Table 1). (+): PCR-fragment, (-): negative control without RT enzyme, gDNA: positive control with gDNA. B. Schematic presentation

showing TSP and promoter region of hupW together with RT-PCR detection of hupW transcripts in Nostoc punctiforme. The positions of primers used are shown (Table 1). (+): PCR-fragment, (-): negative control without RT, gDNA: positive control with gDNA. Results of PCR were visualized on a 1% agarose gel. For Nostoc punctiforme a transcript of hupW of about 1300 nt, is only present in N2-fixing cultures (Figure 2). 5′RACEs identified a single TSP 607 bp upstream of hupW in Nostoc punctiforme, together with a σ70-like -10 box sequence (TAGGCT) and a putative NtcA binding site (GTAN8CAC) located 40 bp upstream from the TSP (Figure 3b). The resulting transcript includes the upstream gene Npun_F0373, which was confirmed by RT-PCR using primers for the subsequent PCR covering the intergenic region and agrees with the result from the Northern blot experiments (Figure 2 and 3b).

Valdivielso P, et al. Nephrology (Carlton). 2003;8:61–4. (Level 4)   4. Gazarin S, et al. J Nephrol. 2002;15:690–5. (Level 4)   5. Matzkies FK, et al. Am J Nephrol. 1999;19:492–4. (Level 4)   6. Olbricht CJ, et buy Sotrastaurin al. Kidney Int 1999;71 (Suppl):S113–6. (Level 2)   7. Brown CD, et al. Am J Kidney Dis. 1995;26:170–7. (Level 3)   8. Poziotinib mw Thomas ME, et al. Kidney Int. 1993;44:1124–9. (Level 2)  

9. Shibasaki T, et al. Nihon Jinzo Gakkai Shi. 1993;35:1243–8. (Level 4)   10. Dogra GK, et al. Kidney Int. 2002;62:550–7. (Level 4)   11. Resh M, et al. Thromb Res. 2011;127:395–9. (Level 4)   Are RAS inhibitors recommended for patients with idiopathic membranous nephropathy and hypertension? Hypertension often occurs as a complication of membranous nephropathy and is a risk factor for the progression of CKD. To treat such hypertension, restriction of sodium intake and administration of anti-hypertensive agents have been recommended. The anti-proteinuric effect of RAS inhibitors on diabetic

and non-diabetic nephropathies is well known. Polanco et al. reported that treatment with RAS inhibitors was associated with a significantly increased probability of spontaneous remission of membranous nephropathy. RAS inhibitors are preferred as the first-line antihypertensive therapy and are expected to reduce urine protein and R428 molecular weight slow the progression of membranous nephropathy. Bibliography 1. Polanco N, et al. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;21:697–704. (Level 4)   2. Kosmadakis G, et al. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 2010;44:251–6. (Level Osimertinib 2)   3. Iimura O, et al. Nihon Jinzo Gakkai Shi. 2003;45:439–44. (Level 4)   4. Prasher PK, et al. J Assoc Physicians India. 1999;47:180–2. (Level 4)   5. Ruggenenti P, et al. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000;35:381–91. (Level 4)

  6. Praga M, et al. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1997;12:2576–9. (Level 4)   7. Rostoker G, et al. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1995;10:25–9. (Level 4)   8. Gansevoort RT, et al. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1992;7(Suppl1):91–6. (Level 3)   9. Thomas DM, et al. Am J Kidney Dis. 1991;18:38–43. (Level 4)   10. Kincaid-Smith P, et al. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2002;17:597–601. (Level 2)   Is treatment with high-dose corticosteroid alone recommended for inducing remission in FSGS? An important prognostic indicator of FSGS is the initial response to therapy. Aggressive immunosuppressive therapy aimed at inducing remission is recommended because sustained nephrotic range proteinuria is a risk factor for progression to ESKD, and, conversely, responders to initial therapy have better long-term outcomes. There are no RCTs comparing corticosteroid or other agents to placebo as the first-line therapy for idiopathic FSGS. Observational studies have shown that high-dose corticosteroid could efficiently induce remission. Therefore, as the first-line therapy, steroid therapy aimed at inducing remission is recommended for patients with FSGS.

In particular the Wolbachia Surface Protein (WSP) has been shown to elicit innate immune induction via TLR2 and TLR4 activation in both humans and mice [14] and to inhibit apoptosis in neutrophils through inhibition of caspase-3 activity [15]. In this study we investigated whether WSP can also induce innate immune responses in insects, using mosquito cell lines originating from both naturally Wolbachia-uninfected and Wolbachia-infected mosquito species. An additional aim was to identify PAMPs (pathogen associated molecular patterns) that can elicit strong immune

responses in mosquitoes, which could be useful for novel disease control strategies; thus in order to avoid the complications of possible strain-host co-adaptations, we have initially used WSP Fosbretabulin derived from a nematode Wolbachia rather than from an insect-derived Wolbachia strain. Results WSP is a strong innate immune response

elicitor in An. gambiae cells. In the An. gambiae click here cells, the antimicrobial peptide-encoding genes Cecropin 1 (CEC1) and Gambicin (GAMB) showed elevated levels of transcription in the presence of WSP compared to negative controls (naïve and proteinase K-treated-pkWSP) [14] and responded in a dosage Pevonedistat dependent fashion, when different concentrations of WSP up to 5μg/ml were used (Fig1A). Their mRNA levels were increased in the presence of WSP to similar degrees and statistically significant differences were observed for all WSP quantities used. In contrast, Defensin 1 (DEF1) which has been shown to be primarily active against Gram-positive bacteria [16], showed only a small degree of upregulation that was not statistically significant. Increased concentrations of WSP also increased the transcription levels of complement-like gene TEP1, Anopheles Plasmodium-responsive Leucine-rich repeat 1 (APL1) and Fibrinogen 9 (FBN9) (Fig1A). In comparison Y-27632 2HCl to the AMPs, TEP1 and APL1 showed a higher induction level with respectively 4 and 5-fold peaks. Significant upregulation was also seen at a concentration of 5μg/ml of WSP for all three genes (p<0.05). This data suggests that in this naturally Wolbachia-uninfected mosquito species, WSP

is capable of inducing the transcription of innate immune factors such as AMPs, complement-like proteins and fibrinogen genes, all of which are involved in anti-parasitic responses in An. gambiae. Figure 1 WSP challenge in mosquito cells. qRT-PCR analysis of AMPs and innate immune genes at 3h post-WSP challenge in 4a3A (A) and Aa23T (B). Increased expression dependent on WSP quantities up to 5μg/ml was detected in all genes tested. Relative expressions were calculated to pkWSP (WSP protein treated with proteinase K) challenged cells and represent the average of 4 biological repeats +/- SE. Statistical analysis where performed using a Wilcoxon rank sum test (*p<0.05, **p<0.01). WSP is a mild innate immune response elicitor in Ae.

This finding is in agreement with our observation that exoproteolytic activity does not coincide with bioluminescence during growth of V. harveyi

(unpublished observation). Overall, these data indicate that promoter::gfp fusions provide a reliable mean to monitor AI-regulated gene expression at the single cell level in V. harveyi. Expression of various AI-regulated genes is heterogeneous Next we analyzed the time-dependent expression of three AI-regulated genes and two AI-independent genes at the single cell level. In addition to the P luxC ::gfp, the P vhp ::gfp MCC 950 and the P recA ::gfp strains described above, strains with P vscP ::gfp and P luxS ::gfp fusions were generated. The vscP gene encodes a translocation protein of the type III secretion system and the product of luxS is involved in the synthesis of AI-2. Our preliminary experiments and a microarray study indicated that luxS expression is not dependent on AIs (unpublished observation; [34]). For all experiments, wild type cells (conjugated with one of the plasmids containing promoter::gfp fusions for luxC, vhp, vscP, luxS, or recA) from an overnight culture were diluted about 10,000-fold into fresh medium, effectively returning the cells to an environment without extracellular AIs (time 0). Cultures were then grown until the end of the exponential or into

the early stationary growth phase (12 or 15 hours). HDAC inhibitors in clinical trials When a suitable cell number was reached (usually after 8 hours of growth = early exponential growth phase), cells were collected and analyzed by microscopy as described above. First, the average fluorescence per cell was determined for each of the five fusions (Figure 3A) as well as for the BB120 strain without any fusion to determine the autofluorescence of V. harveyi (about 100 a.u./cell background fluorescence) (data not shown). As expected the mean values of cells containing P luxS ::gfp or P recA ::gfp did not change significantly over

time (Figure 3A). In contrast, the measurements revealed induction of luxC and vhp, and C188-9 datasheet repression of vscP over time (Figure 3A). The luxC promoter was induced up to 100-fold (10.000 a.u./cell compared to 100 a.u./cell) during the exponential growth phase. The vhp promoter was maximally induced (40-fold) in the early stationary Urocanase phase. Conversely, the vscP promoter was repressed 8-fold over the course of the exponential growth phase. Figure 3 Growth-dependent analysis of the expression of AI-regulated genes at the single cell level. V. harveyi conjugants that carried one of the plasmids pCA2, pCA3, pCA4, pCA5, and pCA1 containing a promoter::gfp fusion driven by the luxC (blue), vhp (green), vscP (red), luxS (grey), or recA (dark grey) promoter, respectively, were cultivated, and at the indicated times the optical density (OD600) was determined (A) and single cell analysis was performed (B-F). At each time point the average fluorescence of the population was determined (A).

Moreover, Wang et al. demonstrated anti-inflammatory benefits, improved antioxidant capacity, and enhanced leptin and insulin sensitivity in Sprague-Dawly rats using a high-fat diet induced nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) model [36]. From the

limited preclinical literature, it appears that raspberry ketones require norepinephrine for maximizing their hormone-sensitive lipolytic action. Capsimax® is a concentrated capsicum extract found in an encapsulated beadlet Ipatasertib form to decrease gastric irritation. Capsaicinoids have been shown in animal studies to activate TRPV1 receptors in vagal afferents of the gut, leading to sympathomimetic action with reductions in abdominal/visceral fat [37]. There

have been a number of short-term human clinical studies utilizing between 2 mg/day and 10 mg/day of active capsaicinoids that have reproduced some of these preclinical animal efficacy and human clinical studies [37–39] including increases in norepinephrine secretion [15, 17]. Further, a systematic review of 90 clinical trials, 20 of which were selected for inclusion demonstrated that capsaicinoid consumption of greater than 2 mg/day resulted in increases selleck inhibitor in Necrostatin-1 supplier energy expenditure of approximately 50 kcal/day and concentrations of anorexigenic hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 [37, 39]. Moreover, significant decreases in energy intake of up to 8%, reductions in preoccupation with food and desire for fatty foods have been reported [39] that appears consistent with our food craving analyses in the METABO group (Table  5). Advantra Z® is an ingredient extracted from the Citrus aurantium (traditional Chinese herb known as zhi-shi) and standardized for the bioactive alkaloid p-synephrine. Other alkaloids

are present in the extract including: octopamine, hordenine, and n-methyltyramine. Taken together, the bioactive amines found in Advantra Z® have been shown to increase thermogenesis, and there is cell and tissue Thiamet G culture evidence to suggest lipolysis is accelerated via a β3 adrenergic receptor pathway [40]. A recent systematic review of human clinical studies involving Citrus aurantium with its primary p-synephrine alkaloid alone or in combination with other ingredients revealed reliable increases in resting metabolic rate of between 2.41% and greater than 7.2%, energy expenditure of up to 13.4%, and weight loss of over 2.9 kg, with no serious adverse events affecting hemodynamic, electrocardiographic, hematologic or clinical chemistry biomarkers when administered over the course of 6-12 weeks [22]. Caffeine is regarded as one of the most commonly consumed methylxanthine alkaloids known to act as an adenosine receptor antagonist and phosphodiesterase inhibitor. As such, the presence of caffeine may have contributed to amplifying the beta-adrenergic and lipolytic effects of the METABO formulation.

Since both mutants and wild types were grown in a rich medium, the effect of CodY on alteration of gene expression in our strains is not known. In addition, microarray analysis also detected some regulatory genes that were see more downregulated in both mutants (Table 3) and some that were upregulated in NCTRR and downregulated in 13124R (Table 1). Among those genes that were affected differently was CPF_0069, which

is a transcription antiterminator similar to the BglG-type regulators in other bacteria (http://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​). This gene was downregulated in 13124R and upregulated in NCTRR. At this point, the roles that this gene and others play in altering the transcription selleck of toxin genes in resistant strains are not known. Nor is there a reason known for the this website contradictory effects of fluoroquinolone resistance selection on the expression of regulatory genes, including those that regulate toxin production, and it needs to be investigated further. Autoinducers (AI-2) also have been implicated in the regulation of some toxin genes [51]. However,

in our strains, the production of AI-2 per cell unit, measured by the indicator Vibrio harveyi, was higher for 13124R than for ATCC 13124 and lower for NCTRR than for NCTR. The ratio of AI-2 production per OD unit in an overnight culture of the mutant to that of the wild type was 1.5 for ATCC 13124 and 0.14 for NCTR. The contradictory results observed in the transcription of various toxin genes in two resistant strains were accompanied by changes in the levels of toxins

and other enzymes. The most dramatic changes were observed for phospholipase C (PLC) and perfringolysin O (PFO). These two toxins were substantially decreased in 13124R and increased in NCTRR. The alterations in the production of enzymes were accompanied by changes in cytotoxicity for macrophages. The cytotoxicities of cell-free culture supernatants Tideglusib of the wild type ATCC 13124 and NCTR, for the macrophages were comparable. However, the cell-free culture supernatant of 13124R exhibited significantly lower cytotoxicity for macrophages than ATCC 13124, but that of NCTRR had higher cytotoxicity than NCTR. These data were consistent with the alterations in the transcription patterns of toxin genes and enzyme assays that were observed by DNA microarray analysis, qRT-PCR assay and toxin production. The cytotoxic effects were correlated with the transcription pattern of toxins and virulence-associated genes and enzymatic activities, confirming that the effect of fluoroquinolones on C. perfringens was strain-specific. O’Brien and Melville [33] reported that perfringolysin O (PFO) plays a more prominent role than α-toxin (PLC) in cytotoxicity for macrophages.

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