(HEPATOLOGY 2011;) Chronic alcohol consumption causes a spectrum of liver pathologies ranging

from steatosis to steatohepatitis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and can ultimately progress to hepatocellular carcinoma.1-4 X-396 in vitro Early stages of the disease are associated with macrovesicular or microvesicular steatosis predominantly in the central and mid-zonal areas of the liver (zones 3 and 2). Prolonged exposure to ethanol elicits secondary pathologies such as inflammation from gut-derived endotoxins and progresses to steatohepatitis, which is characterized by hepatocellular ballooning, degeneration and necrosis, Mallory’s hyaline body formation, and tissue neutrophil infiltration.2, 5 Cirrhosis, the late stage and most severe form of alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is marked by fibrosis, altered liver architecture, and decreased function and is often progressive and may eventually lead to organ failure.5, 6 Therefore, it is important to understand the molecular mechanisms that underlie the development of ALD to develop therapies that prevent further disease progression. Augmented generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) through induction of cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, reduced form (NADPH) oxidase, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) have been shown

to contribute to liver pathology associated with ethanol toxicity in animal models of ALD.7-13 In addition, alcohol metabolism suppresses mitochondrial protein synthesis through LY2157299 concentration its effects on mitochondrial ribosomes and possibly mitochondrial DNA.14, 15 Indeed, the mitochondrion has long been recognized as an important target for alcohol-mediated

toxicity.3, 14, 16, 17 Chronic alcohol consumption causes marked decreases in respiratory chain enzymes resulting from decreased hepatic mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and proteomics studies have demonstrated changes in as many as 40 proteins in response to alcohol.15 In addition to the direct impact of alcohol consumption on mtDNA, and mitochondrial protein synthesis machinery, intramitochondrial proteins are irreversibly oxidized by ROS/RNS and reactive medchemexpress lipid species such as 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE).7, 9, 17-20 Functionally, this increases dysregulation of fatty acid metabolism and increases activation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP).21, 22 Furthermore, endotoxin-mediated activation of Kupffer cells also results in nitrosative stress through induction of iNOS.7, 9 Increased generation of nitric oxide then inhibits respiration in mitochondria sensitized by ethanol toxicity and also diet-induced fatty liver, indicating commonality in the mechanisms leading to hepatosteatosis in response to metabolic stress.